zinc

Foods Richest in zinc

About zinc

Basic description

Zinc receives less public attention than iron, calcium, or sodium, but it is equally essential. Like magnesium, zinc functions as a catalytic cofactor, participating directly at enzyme active sites. More than 300 zinc-dependent enzymes are currently documented, spanning every major metabolic pathway. Even mild deficiency produces measurable consequences for immune function, reproductive biology, skin integrity, and vision.

Meeting the 11 mg DRI for zinc from whole foods is more challenging than for most minerals. No single WHF food qualifies as an excellent source. Only five rank as very good, and 24 as good. This means no individual food can be relied on to supply the full daily requirement; dietary diversity across food groups is necessary. The Summary of Food Sources section below provides specific strategies.

Like sodium and potassium, or calcium and magnesium, zinc and copper have overlaps in transport and metabolism. For this reason, balancing dietary zinc and copper sources may help prevent deficiency or excess of either mineral.

Role in health support

Immune function

Diets low in zinc can induce measureable reductions in the activity of the immune system. These reductions occur relatively quickly, in as few as four weeks on a low-zinc diet, and are reversible upon repletion.

This experimental low-zinc diet only contained 2-3.5 milligrams of zinc per day, or less than you would have in a single serving of our Mediterranean-Style Salad.

It appears that elderly individuals are especially prone to developing reduced immunity related to poor zinc nutrition. Even in this at-risk population, restoring zinc status appears to reverse the detrimental changes within weeks.

One research group has recommended a Mediterranean-style diet to protect against zinc deficiency in elderly individuals, a finding consistent with the broad dietary diversity that such a pattern provides.

Skin health

Researchers have induced acne symptoms in young men by feeding zinc-deficient diets. One group demonstrated measurable skin changes within 12 days. Other studies have documented facial rash, foot fungus, and canker sores from zinc depletion, all reversible upon zinc repletion. This does not mean that most acne stems from zinc deficiency. It does indicate that suboptimal zinc intake can be one factor in compromised skin integrity, and that meeting the DRI is relevant to dermal health.

Sensory organs

Acute zinc depletion can cause loss of taste sensation (hypogeusia) and appetite. The level of zinc deficiency necessary to cause these changes appears to be more severe than the immune system changes reported above, and is often related to another factor such as cancer treatment or anorexia. One research group recently estimated that about 15% of elderly people who lost their sense of taste did so due to zinc deficiency, and some others did so due to more serious conditions; so make sure to report this symptom to your doctor if you develop it.

Like the other symptoms related to zinc deficiency, this change in sense of taste appears to be reversible in the majority of people who get back to normal zinc status. Recipes like Braised Red Curry Lamb and Vegetables and Healthy Chef’s Salad with Walnuts and French Dressing provide zinc while using pungent spices that may help compensate for diminished taste perception.

Zinc is also critical to vision. It works together with vitamin A to help sense light and to send nerve impulses to the brain. Although we don’t currently know how much of age-related vision loss is due to zinc deficiency, researchers have shown that zinc levels in the retina (the part of the eye that sees light) decline in tandem with vision loss.

Male reproductive health

Advanced deficiency of zinc can impair motility and number of sperm. In one study, young male volunteers ate a diet with only 10% of the Daily Value requirement (15 milligrams) for a little over a month. Researchers measured sperm quality and quantity before and after the zinc-deficient diet.

This study demonstrated that even brief periods of severe zinc deficiency can lead to measureable changes in sperm composition and quantity. Studies correlating diseases known to impair zinc nutrition with reduced fertility seem to second this conclusion. The 7-Minute Sauteed Crimini Mushroom recipe provides both zinc and selenium, another mineral necessary for spermatogenesis.

Summary of food sources

The most well-known fact about zinc in foods is almost certainly that oysters are rich in zinc. A typical oyster weighing approximately one ounce will contain about 8-9 milligrams of zinc. So two oysters would put you over the WHF recommended daily amount of 11 milligrams. In addition to oysters, other shellfish tend to be rich in this mineral, as are many other animal foods. Shrimp, for example, rank as our 10th best WHF source of zinc. And our Oyster and Clam Chowder recipe contains more than 400% of the DRI for zinc.

Red meat and poultry together contribute the largest share of zinc in American diets, but the two differ substantially in zinc concentration. Grass-fed beef ranks as the top WHF zinc source at 1 mg per ounce. Pasture-raised chicken ranks 44th, with only 0.25 mg per ounce; its large contribution to population zinc intake reflects the volume consumed, not its density. For zinc-focused food selection, beef outperforms chicken. Fish (including scallops and shrimp) are good zinc sources. After beef, lamb is the best WHF land-animal zinc source.

It is also true that many nuts and seeds are rich in zinc. Sesame seeds and pumpkin seeds, for example, rank in our Top 10 WHF sources for this mineral! And cashews are not far behind at our 11th best source. These nuts and seeds also provide the largest amounts of zinc to our 7-Day Healthiest Way of Eating Plan. For people eating a largely plant-based diet, these sources will be necessary on a daily basis to ensure a consistent intake of zinc. Shiitake mushrooms, crimini mushrooms, spinach, and asparagus are examples of very good plant-food sources of zinc. Among our WHF whole grains, quinoa and oats are you best zinc sources.

For most nutrients, there are a few food sources that stand out as providing most of a day’s supply. Other than oysters, this is not true for zinc. Because of this, you’ll need to have multiple contributors most days to reach your recommended intake level. With 38 of our WHF containing at least 1 milligram of zinc, you’ll have a wide variety of items to choose from to make sure you meet your goal.

Nutrient rating chart

Introduction to nutrient rating system chart

Read more background information and details of our rating system

WHF ranked as quality sources of
zinc

Food

Serving
Size

Cals

Amount
(mg)

DRI/DV
(%)

Nutrient
Density

World’s
Healthiest
Foods Rating

Beef

4 oz

175.0

4.09

37

3.8

very good

Spinach

1 cup

41.4

1.37

12

5.4

very good

Asparagus

1 cup

39.6

1.08

10

4.5

very good

Mushrooms, Shiitake

0.50 cup

40.6

0.96

9

3.9

very good

Mushrooms, Crimini

1 cup

15.8

0.79

7

8.2

very good

Lamb

4 oz

310.4

3.87

35

2.0

good

Sesame Seeds

0.25 cup

206.3

2.79

25

2.2

good

Pumpkin Seeds

0.25 cup

180.3

2.52

23

2.3

good

Garbanzo Beans

1 cup

269.0

2.51

23

1.5

good

Lentils

1 cup

229.7

2.51

23

1.8

good

Cashews

0.25 cup

221.2

2.31

21

1.7

good

Quinoa

0.75 cup

222.0

2.02

18

1.5

good

Turkey

4 oz

166.7

1.95

18

1.9

good

Shrimp

4 oz

134.9

1.85

17

2.2

good

Tofu

4 oz

164.4

1.78

16

1.8

good

Scallops

4 oz

125.9

1.76

16

2.3

good

Green Peas

1 cup

115.7

1.64

15

2.3

good

Oats

0.25 cup

151.7

1.55

14

1.7

good

Yogurt

1 cup

149.4

1.45

13

1.6

good

Beet Greens

1 cup

38.9

0.72

7

3.0

good

Summer Squash

1 cup

36.0

0.70

6

3.2

good

Broccoli

1 cup

54.6

0.70

6

2.1

good

Swiss Chard

1 cup

35.0

0.58

5

2.7

good

Brussels Sprouts

1 cup

56.2

0.51

5

1.5

good

Miso

1 TBS

34.2

0.44

4

2.1

good

Parsley

0.50 cup

10.9

0.33

3

4.9

good

Sea Vegetables

1 TBS

10.8

0.33

3

5.0

good

Tomatoes

1 cup

32.4

0.31

3

1.6

good

Bok Choy

1 cup

20.4

0.29

3

2.3

good

World’s Healthiest
Foods Rating

Rule

excellent

DRI/DV>=75% OR
Density>=7.6 AND DRI/DV>=10%

very good

DRI/DV>=50% OR
Density>=3.4 AND DRI/DV>=5%

good

DRI/DV>=25% OR
Density>=1.5 AND DRI/DV>=2.5%

Impact of cooking, storage and processing

Like other minerals, zinc in foods is remarkably stable to shelf storage. In fact, your foods will go bad long before the zinc content changes in any relevant way. But because many of the zinc-rich foods (meats, shellfish, and seeds, for instance) have such a limited shelf life for other reasons (like risk of bacterial contamination), you’ll want to be careful in the way you store them.

Cooking meat does not lead to dramatic loss of zinc. Unlike potassium, which leaches readily into cooking water, zinc in cooked meats retains well. (And by the way, we do not recommend consumption of raw meat due to contamination risk.)

In plant foods, you can expect some zinc loss in cooking liquids, but this loss tends to be less than that seen with most other minerals. For example, boiled lentils lose about 10-20% of their zinc content. While this loss is not exactly irrelevant, in a practical sense, this still leaves lentils as a good source of dietary zinc (and given that lentils generally are not eaten raw you can know that by preparing them you are still enjoying a zinc-rich food).

Soaking beans, seeds, and grains for several hours, then allowing sprouts to form, may significantly improve zinc bioavailability from these foods.

Risk of dietary deficiency

While the average U.S. diet provides adequate zinc for most men and women, symptomatic zinc deficiency does sometimes occur in the U.S. Unlike for many of the other minerals, however, the beef-rich diet of many Americans (averaging about 1 pound of beef per week) tends to provide zinc in good supply. Not only beef, but other animal meats, provide us with substantial amounts of zinc, including grass-fed lamb and pasture-raised turkey. Perhaps the biggest risk of zinc deficiency in a healthy adult would occur in a person who consumed few animal foods and whose diet was largely based on processed foods, with no routine intake of nuts, seeds, fresh vegetables, or whole grains.

On average, U.S. children have sufficient intake of zinc. By the DRI standard described below, less than 5% of children in any age group are currently eating zinc-deficient diets.

That statistic masks a concern: children increasingly depend on fortified foods (foods with zinc added during processing) rather than meeting zinc needs from whole foods. For example, ready-to-eat processed cereals have become an important source of zinc in kids’ diets. This trend has three unwanted results. First, it leaves kids lacking in nutrients that are naturally present alongside of zinc in whole foods. Second, it leaves kids with imbalanced intake of zinc in relationship to other nutrients (like copper). And third, it puts kids at risk of excess zinc intake due to overconsumption of fortified processed foods. According to present-day research, nearly 90% of children under age 1, and 50% of those aged 1-3 years, eat more than the age appropriate upper limit of zinc daily.

Vegetarian diets tend to be a bit lower in zinc than diets that contain meat. Still, this difference is not as great as you might predict from looking at the food source lists below. According to a 2013 review of previously published research, vegetarians on average eat just under 1 mg of zinc less than meat-eaters in their daily diets. If you eat a largely or fully vegetarian diet, including seeds on a daily basis might be a good step toward ensuring good zinc nutrition.

Other circumstances that might contribute to deficiency

In addition to poor dietary supply, increased need for zinc (beyond our typical everyday needs) can also contribute to a relative deficiency of this nutrient. Infections, trauma, stress, and steroid medications are just some of the examples of situations where body tissues take up extra zinc from the blood, creating a relative deficiency.

Serious gastrointestinal problems can impair the ability to absorb zinc from foods. For example, more than half of people with an inflammatory bowel disorder called Crohn’s disease have evidence of zinc deficiency. If you have inflammatory bowel disease, you’ll probably need some help from a doctor or nutritionist to ensure good vitamin and mineral intake.

Our bodies are able to somewhat compensate for a very low zinc intake by reducing the amount of the mineral lost in the urine and feces. People with kidney or bowel diseases may not be as equipped to respond to temporarily low-zinc diets as people with normal organ function.

Relationship with other nutrients

Too much zinc in the diet or from dietary supplements can impair copper nutrition. This interaction can occur in two ways. First, copper and zinc may directly compete for absorption from our gastrointestinal tract. Second, diets high in zinc may lead to overproduction of a protein called metallothionein, a protein that binds both copper and zinc. This second type of interaction might turn out to be the most important type in this arena.

The takeaway message here is probably two-fold. First, focus on foods that are strong sources of both copper and zinc. Sesame seeds and pumpkin seeds would be good examples of these. Secondarily, using high doses of zinc supplements to circumvent the difficulty in finding good food sources may do as much or more harm as good.

Phytate (inositol hexaphosphate), a phosphorus-storage molecule in grains and legumes, chelates zinc in the intestinal lumen and reduces its bioavailability. Phytate similarly inhibits iron absorption. Colonic bacteria can hydrolyze phytate, but this occurs downstream of the primary zinc absorption sites in the jejunum. Sprouting grains and legumes substantially reduces phytate content by activating endogenous phytase enzymes. That said, no research shows that consuming non-sprouted whole grains and legumes within a balanced diet increases zinc deficiency risk.

Risk of dietary toxicity

The major risk associated with excessive zinc intake is that you will crowd out the ability to absorb other important minerals. In particular, high zinc intakes impair absorption of copper, a nutrient we already struggle to obtain from our diets. Reduced copper absorption, in turn, can lead to anemia and a resulting fatigue.

Fortunately, it appears that all the published cases of excessive zinc intake involve either a nutritional supplement or a related non-dietary exposure (denture creams, for instance, can contain excessive amounts of zinc). It would be theoretically possible to obtain too much dietary zinc by eating several oysters every day, but this has never been reported to be a problem in published research studies, perhaps because oysters are also rich in the other minerals that compete with zinc for absorption.

There is a Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL) set for zinc by the Institute of Medicine at the National Academy of Sciences of 40 milligrams per day. The basis for this recommended limit involved research on enzyme activity in red blood cells. (The enzymes required a special balance between copper and zinc to function properly, and too much zinc upset this balance.) As described earlier, a good balance of zinc and copper in food might be able to help offset possible problems even if zinc intake regularly exceeded the UL. It is always worth remembering that ULs set by the National Academy of Sciences refer to regular intake of nutrients on a routine basis, not occasional intake every once in a while.

Disease checklist

• Common cold
• Acne vulgaris
• Down syndrome
• Canker sores
• Liver disease
• Ulcer
• Diabetes
• Depression
• Macular degeneration
• Infertility (male)

Public health recommendations

The 1999 Dietary Reference Intake (DRI) levels for zinc as established by the National Academy of Sciences are as follows:

• 0-6 months: 2 mg
• 7-12 months: 3 mg
• 1-3 years: 3 mg
• 4-8 years: 5 mg
• 9-13 years: 8 mg
• 14-18 years, female: 8 mg
• 14-18 years, male: 11 mg
• 19+ years, female: 8 mg
• 19+ years, male: 11 mg
• Pregnant women, 14-18 years: 12 mg
• Pregnant women, 19+ years: 11 mg
• Lactating women, 14-18 years: 13 mg
• Lactating women, 19+ years: 12 mg

All of the DRI recommendations above are Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs), except the recommendation for 0-6 month old infants, which is an AI (Adequate Intake) recommendation. (AI intake recommendations are somewhat less precise than RDA recommendations.)

The Daily Value (DV) for zinc is 15 mg per day for adults and children older than 4 years. DVs are the standards used on food packaging labels.

The National Academy of Sciences has set a Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL) for zinc intake at 40 mg per day for adults. As noted in the toxicity section above, it would be very unusual to consistently be above this threshold by dietary intake alone.

As our WHF recommendation level for zinc, we chose the DRI standard for males 14 years and older of 11 milligrams. With the exception of pregnancy and lactation, this level covers the needs of females 14 years and older as well.

What can high-zinc foods do for you?

• Help balance blood sugar
• Stabilize your metabolic rate
• Prevent a weakened immune system
• Support an optimal sense of smell and taste

What events can indicate a need for more high-zinc foods?

• Impaired sense of taste or smell
• Lack of appetite
• Depression
• Growth failure in children
• Frequent colds and infections

Calf’s liver is an excellent source of zinc while very good sources of zinc include crimini mushrooms, shiitake mushrooms, venison, and spinach.

WHF rich in
zinc

FoodCals%Daily Value

Venison21765.3%

Lamb22930.6%

Beef, grass-fed17527.2%

Scallops12722.6%

Sesame Seeds20618.6%

Pumpkin Seeds18016.8%

Oats16615.6%

Yogurt15414.5%

Turkey15313.1%

Shrimp11211.8%

For serving size for specific foods, see Nutrient Rating Chart below at the bottom of this page.

• Description

• Function

• Deficiency Symptoms

• Toxicity Symptoms

• Cooking, storage and processing

• Factors that affect function

• Nutrient interaction

• Health conditions

• Food Sources

• Public Health Recommendations

• References

Description

What is zinc?

Zinc is a micromineral needed in the diet on a daily basis, but only in very small amounts (50 milligrams or less). The other microminerals that all humans must get from food are arsenic, boron, cobalt, copper, chromium, fluorine, iodine, iron, manganese, molybdenum, nickel, silicon, vanadium, and zinc.

The first research studies to demonstrate the zinc’s important in the diet focused on the issue of growth. When foods did not supply sufficient amounts of zinc, young men in Iran and Egypt were found to have impaired overall growth as well as impaired sexual maturation. These initial studies on zinc reflected some of the key functions served by this mineral, including regulation of genetic activity and balance of carbohydrate metabolism and blood sugar.

How it functions

What is the function of zinc?

Regulating genetic activities

Zinc is an important regulator of many genetic activities. The cells of our body each have a special compartment called the nucleus, and inside the nucleus are approximately 100,000 genes. These genes provide instructions for the cell, and the cell has to decide which instructions to read. Zinc is essential for reading genetic instructions, and when diets do not contain foods rich in zinc, instructions get misread, or not read at all. (In biochemistry terms, the gene-reading process that requires zinc is called gene transcription.)

Supporting blood sugar balance and metabolic rate

Insulin, a hormone made by the pancreas, is often required to move sugar from our bloodstream into our cells. The response of our cells to insulin is called insulin response. When the foods in our diet do not provide us with enough zinc, insulin response decreases, and our blood sugar becomes more difficult to stabilize. Metabolic rate - the rate at which we create and use up energy - also depends on zinc for its regulation. When zinc is deficient in the diet, metabolic rate drops (along with hormonal output by our thyroid gland).

Supporting smell and taste sensitivity

Gustin is a small protein that is directly involved in our sense of taste. Zinc mus be linked to gustin in order for our sense of taste to function properly. Because of this relationship between zinc and taste, and because taste and smell are so closely linked in human physiology, impaired sense of taste and smell are common symptoms of zinc deficiency.

Supporting immune function

Many types of immune cells appear to depend upon zinc for optimal function. Particularly in children, researchers have studied the effects of zinc deficiency (and zinc supplementation) on immune response and number of white blood cells, including specific studies on T lymphocytes, macrophages, and B cells (all types of white blood cells). In these studies, zinc deficiency has been shown to compromise white blood cells numbers and immune response, while zinc supplementation has been shown to restore conditions to normal.

Deficiency symptoms

What are deficiency symptoms for zinc?

Because of the link between zinc and the taste-related protein called gustin, impaired sense of taste and/or smell are common symptoms of zinc deficiency. Depression, lack of appetite, growth failure in children, and frequent colds and infections can also be symptomatic of insufficient dietary zinc.

Toxicity symptoms

What are toxicity symptoms for zinc?

Zinc toxicity has been reported in the research literature, and in 2000 the National Academy of Sciences set a tolerable upper limit (UI) of 40 milligrams for daily intake of zinc. (This limit applies to all individuals age 19 and over.) A metallic, bitter taste in the mouth can be indicative of zinc toxicity, as can stomach pain, nausea, vomiting, cramps, and diarrhea mixed with blood.

Factors that affect function

What factors might contribute to a deficiency of zinc?

In addition to dietary deficiency, problems in the digestive tract can contribute to zinc deficiency. These problems include irritable and inflammatory bowel disorders, as well as insufficient output by the pancreas that prevents proper digestion of food.

Protein deficiency, particularly of the amino acid cysteine, can contribute to zinc deficiency by impairing synthesis of the transport and storage proteins (metallothionein, albumin) that shuttle and store zinc in the body.

Loss of zinc through chronic diarrhea or profuse sweating (as might occur with heavy physical labor or athletic training) can also contribute to deficiency of this mineral.

Nutrient interactions

How do other nutrients interact with zinc?

A Tolerable Upper Limit (UL) for zinc of 40 milligrams per day was set by the National Academy of Sciences in 2000 for all adults 19 years and older. This limit was set primarily because high zinc intake (particularly from supplements) can impair copper absorption and disrupt the status of other nutrients.

The most important of these nutrients are copper and calcium. Even at moderate doses of 18-20 milligrams that can easily be obtained from food, zinc can compromise the body’s supply of copper unless foods rich in copper are also included in the diet. When few foods high in calcium are included in the diet, high levels of zinc intake (usually obtained from supplements) can also decrease absorption of calcium from the intestine into the body.

Although zinc is associated with these potential detrimental effects on copper and calcium, it is also supportive of other nutrients. The best studied of these nutrients in vitamin A. Without zinc, vitamin A cannot be effectively transported around the body, and cannot efficiently be mobilized when it is needed.

Health conditions

What health conditions require special emphasis on zinc?

Zinc may play a role in the prevention and/or treatment of the following health conditions:

• Acne
• Alcoholism
• Alopecia
• Alzheimer’s disease
• Anorexia nervosa
• Atopic dermatitis
• Benign prostatic hypertrophy
• Cervical dysplasia
• Common cold
• Crohn’s disease
• Diabetes
• Epilepsy
• Graves’ disease
• Herpes simplex
• HIV/AIDS
• Infertility (male)
• Inflammatory bowel diseases
• Influenza
• Macular degeneration
• Osteoarthritis
• PMS
• Psoriasis
• Rheumatoid arthritis
• Seborrheic dermatitis
• Senile cataracts

Food sources

What foods provide zinc?

Calf’s liver is an excellent source of zinc. Crimini mushrooms, shiitake mushrooms, spinach, and venison are very good sources of zinc.

Good sources include asparagus, chard, scallops, lamb, beef, maple syrup, shrimp, green peas, yogurt, oats, pumpkin seeds, sesame seeds, turkey, miso, and spelt.

Drug-nutrient interactions

What medications affect zinc?

Thiazide diuretics like Diuril � or Enduron � and ACE inhibitors like Capozide� and Lotensin,� both used to lower blood pressure, can compromise zinc status. The body’s supply of zinc can also be reduced by use of antibiotics (like penicillinamine or tetracycline), ranitidine (often sold under the trade name Zantac� and used as a stomach antacid), and oral contraceptives (birth control pills).

Form in dietary supplements

What forms of zinc are found in dietary supplements?

Zinc cannot usually be absorbed into the body unless it is first linked up with other substances. For this reason, many supplement manufacturers have produced dietary supplements containing zinc in what is referred to as “chelated” form. “Chelated” means connected with another molecule.

In the case of zinc, the most common chelates fall into two categories. The first category is organic acids. These chelates include picolinic acid, orotic acid, citric acid and gluconic acid. The second category is amino acids. This category includes methionine, monomethionine, and aspartic acid. When supplements contain zinc in these chelated forms, the supplement label will usually read: zinc picolinate, zinc orotate, zinc gluconate, zinc monomethionine, and so forth.

Supplemental zinc is also available in what is called inorganic form. Here zinc is provided in a non-chelated form, usually as zinc sulfate or zinc oxide. Research studies on these different forms of zinc show mixed results.

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40. Cerhan JR, Saag KG, Merlino LA et al. Antioxidant micronutrients and risk of rheumatoid arthritis in a cohort of older women. Am J Epidemiol. 2003 Feb 15; 157(4):345-54 2003. https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwf205
41. Chandra RK. Micronutrients and immune functions. Ann NY Acad Sci 1990;587:9-16 1990. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.1990.tb00128.x
42. Dunn MA, Blalock TL, Cousins RJ. Metallothionein. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 1987;187:107-119 1987. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.bi.55.070186.004405
43. Festa MD, Anderson HL, Dowdy RP, et al. Effect of zinc intake on copper excretion and retention in men. Am J Clin Nutr 1985;41:285-292 1985. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/41.2.285
44. Forbes RM, Erdman JW Jr. Bioavailability of trace mineral elements. Ann Rev Nutr 1983;2:213-231 1983. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.nu.03.070183.001241
45. Groff JL, Gropper SS, Hunt SM. Advanced Nutrition and Human Metabolism. West Publishing Company, New York, 1995 1995.
46. Hambridge KM, Casey CE, Krebs NF. Zinc. In: Mertz W. (Ed), Trace elements in human and animal nutrition. 5th Edition, Volume 2. Academic Press, Orlando, Florida, 1986 1986.
47. Meiners CR, Derise NL, Lau HC, et al. (1976). The content of nine mineral elements in raw and cooked mature dry legumes. J Arg Food Chem 1976;24:1126-1130 1976.
48. Pedersen B, Eggum BO. The influence of milling on the nutritive value of flour from cereal grains. Part 2. Wheat. Qual Plant Plant Fds Hum Nutr 1983;33:51-61 1983. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf01094752
49. Prasad AS, Cavdar AO, Brewer GJ, et al. Zinc deficiency in human subjects. Alan R Liss, Inc, New York, 1983 1983. https://doi.org/10.5694/j.1326-5377.1984.tb108440.x
50. Smith JC Jr, McDaniel EG, Fan FF, et al. Zinc: a trace element in vitamin A metabolism. Science 1973;181:954 1973. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.181.4103.954
51. Solomons NW, Cousins RJ. Zinc. In: Solomons NW and Rosenberg IH. (Eds). Absorption and malabsorption of mineral nutrients. Alan R Liss, New York, 1984 1984.
52. Spencer H. Minerals and mineral interactions in human beings. J Am Diet Assoc 1986;86:864-867 1986. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0002-8223(21)04037-2
53. Wada L, King JC. Effect of low zinc intakes on basal metabolic rate, thyroid hormones and protein utilization in adult men. J Nutr 1986;116:1045-1053 1986. https://doi.org/10.1093/jn/116.6.1045
54. Wu FY-H, Wu C-W. Zinc in DNA replication and transcription. Ann Rev Nutr 1987;7:251-272 1987. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.nu.07.070187.001343